History of Public Health Systems Essay Example for Free

History of Public Health Systems Essay Public Health is about helping everyone to stay healthy rather than focusing specifically on the individual, with the aim to promote health, protecting individuals from threats to their health and preventing ill-health. Public health policies have made a significant impact in increasing a persons overall life expectancy and improving health. (Public Health) Public Health Strategies: Public health strategies are devised in order to prevent the spread of diseases, prolong life and promote health. This can be done through the use of monitoring, identifying, developing programmes etc. Monitoring the health status of the community – Is a key aspect of health strategies that are in place within the UK. This health strategy helps to monitor any changes that occur in the health of the population, along with alerting individuals to any potential problems. Health throughout the UK is monitored by quality of life, infant mortality rates and life expectancy (Baker L, 2008, BTEC National Health and Social Care Book 2, page 2) The monitoring of health throughout the country allows for advanced planning of local services within the community that may be at risk of certain health problems. The monitoring of health at a local level allows for information to be recorded before being compared to the health of other communities across the country. Local information on health is an important aspect as it is collected on a geographical basis throughout the UK, for example vaccination rates, hospital admissions etc. This is one way on health can be monitored, as in the cases of other communities they may have higher incidence rates of certain diseases whereas others may have low incidences of diseases. Communities that have a higher rate of disease are monitored further and health promotion campaigns will be developed before being put into effect in order to reduce the risk of disease spreading within the community. The health status of a community can vary throughout the nation and depend on a variety of factors, of which can include: Age Gender Socio-economic conditions Genetics Environmental factors Through the use of monitoring health changes any problems that may arise in the future within communities can be identified in advance in order for it to be prevented. For example the rise of sexually transmitted diseases within local communities would monitored in order to predict any potential problems that may occur in the future and stop them from taking place. Identifying the health needs of the population – The health of the nation is measured by using mortality and morbidity rates of which have indicated how people are now living longer than that of their predecessors. Identifying the health needs of the population is another important aspect of public health strategies within the UK; this takes place when trends and patterns in local communities across the nation are established. By identifying the health needs of individuals located in a particular community means that the need for services can therefore be identified. Patterns can be detected throughout the country through the use of national statistics. National statistics are used in order to determine how health can be improved and how areas of concern can be highlighted, along with the effects of ill health may be reduced and prevented. Patterns of illness and disease can possibly be the result of certain factors, of which include; genetics, environment, lifestyle, education etc. However some parts of the country may be more susceptible to certain illnesses and diseases than others due to the patterns that are outlined by the National Statistics and social trends information. Developing programmes to reduce risk and screen for early disease – Screening is the process of identifying apparently healthy people who may be at increased risk of a disease or condition. They can then be offered information, further tests and appropriate treatment to reduce their risk and/or any complications arising from the disease or  condition. As defined by the UK National Screening Committee (UK NSC). Health programmes are developed based on the information gathered by epidemiologists. An epidemiologist is a person who studies patterns of diseases or health risks in population groups, societies, and cultures. The Department of Health produces a green paper that proposes what the targets of health should be; and is based on these decisions as to how the government implement the findings. From this a white paper is produced, of which goes into detail as to how and what course of action is taken. An example of recent white papers can include ‘Our Healthy Nation’ and ‘Our Healthier Nation ‘ (1999). The aim of the white paper is to inform and protect members of the public by influencing social changes in regards to the health of the nation. (L, 2008, BTEC National Health and Social Care Book 2, page 4). Examples of current public health programmes include: Five a day campaign, MMR immunisation programme and the Local NHS Smoking Service. Controlling communicable disease – Controlling communicable diseases is an important aspect of public health strategies in the UK, of which ‘involves planning to include screening and early detection, isolation and treatment, containment, prevention and cure eradication where possible’. (Baker L, 2008, BTEC National Health and Social Care Book 2, page 7) The early detection of a disease can prove useful, as it can provide insight on the cause and the spread of the disease along with being able to highlight any potential risks that the disease may cause to an individual or group of people; especially in vulnerable people such as young children, and the elderly. Young children and the elderly are more susceptible to disease due to their immune system being much weaker than the average individual; therefore it is important in the early detection of an infection in order to stop this from occurring. Isolating individuals with communicable diseases enables to remain controlled, in order to reduce and prevent the risk of spreading the disease. A resident residing in a care home that was diagnosed with tuberculosis for example, would be moved to a room on their own, in order to ensure that the disease is not then passed to another service user within  the home is one example. Containing a disease can occur at a national and local level; this can occur once the source of the infection has been identified and plan has been developed and put in place in order to reduce the risk of the disease reoccurring. The measures that are taken in which to contain the disease can vary from short, medium, to long term measures. (Baker L, 2008, BTEC National Health and Social Care Book 2, page 7) Short term measures – limited visiting, unnecessary travel, treatment and isolation Medium/long term measures – immunisation programme, appropriate medical treatment, educating individuals about the risks, eradicating incidence of disease where it proves possible to do so Eradicating disease is now becoming possible due to advances in research and technology. Advances in technology means that more is known about the causes of illness and disease along with how the disease is spread. This advance has been made possible through the use of early detection and surveillance, monitoring, screening, treatment and immunisation programmes, health education and promotion. (Baker L, 2008, BTEC National Health and Social Care Book 2, page 8) Promote the health of the population – Health promoters are tasked with the promoting the health of the population on a local and national scale. Health promoters are based in a variety of settings, such as, GP surgeries, drop-in centres, radio, magazines and schools. They are prioritised on local need and the availability of funding for the necessary resources. These priorities can be identified through the number of reported illnesses and diseases through local statistics. Any illnesses or diseases taken from the statistics prove to be either life threatening or cause an individual to spend a substantial amount of time in hospital would then be given top priority in the promoting of health. Individuals who may be overweight can potentially be at risk of coronary heart disease later on in life. The health promoter would thereby ensure that diets and exercise are promoted through the use of proper channel on both a local and national level. Planning and evaluating the national provision of health and social care – The National provision of Health and Social care within the UK is planned and evaluated by the National Health Service and Social Services. This is based on the information provided by health and social care professionals on a local, regional and national scale across the UK. The government have produced guidelines and information to state how they will tackle the problems controlling and preventing infectious disease spread. (Baker L, 2008, BTEC National Health and Social Care Book 2, page 8) The strategies outlined in the guidelines by the government are a series of proposed actions in order to create a system in which to prevent, investigate and control the threat of infectious diseases and to address health protection on a wider scale. M1 Describe the origins of public health policy in the UK from the 19th century to the present day. In this essay I will compare two different health measures in the 19th century and how they have made an impact on society today. I am also going to compare and explain the living conditions of towns and cities in the 19th, 20th and 21st century. Public health has developed considerably over the years and the changes that have occurred overtime reflect on the health concerns of the nation during each time period. These changes are what have produced the Public Health system that is currently in place today. Over the year’s vast amounts of medical knowledge of today’s health professionals have increased in response as to how diseases are spread, along with the advances in medicine that have aided in helping to reduce the incidence of infectious diseases. During the 19th century the living conditions were exceedingly poor and there were various health issues of which include overcrowding in housing and overcrowding in general, thereby resulting in the spread of disease. The Poor Law Act (1834) was established in 1834. The Poor Law was designed in order to reduce the cost of looking after the poor and impose a system which  would be the same all across the country. The industrial revolution led to the development of towns and cities across the UK. The population of the nation had increased rapidly once the Poor Law Act was implemented. The country’s poverty relief system had not been amended since 1601, before finally coming into play as a result of Edwin Chadwick, John Snow. The Public Health Act was first implemented in 1848 in order to ensure that sanitary conditions were provided for in populated areas across the UK. In response to the Public Health Act 1848 The General Board of Health was developed so as to ensure that all public health policies that were administered were carried out as effectively as possible. Edwin Chadwick was the first commissioner of the board. The implementation of the act allowed for authorities working with civil engineers and medics to improve sanitation. (Baker L, 2008, BTEC National Health and Social Care Book 2, page 14) Edwin Chadwick (1800-1890) was accredited for his work on the reformation of the Poor Law. Edwin Chadwick was appointed by the government to carry out investigations and research into current sanitation. Chadwick wrote a report outlining his findings known as ‘The Sanitary Conditions of the Labouring Population’ published in 1842. In his report Chadwick argued that disease had a direct link to living conditions. After the report was produced new measures were taken in order to help promote the safe disposal of human waste and rubbish. Chadwick believed that poor sanitary conditions caused disease. John Snow (1813-1858) was a British physician commended for his work in relation to the cholera outbreak in 1854. Snow was an anaesthetist and epidemiologist interested in the practices of cleanliness and hygiene put in place to help prevent disease. Snow formed the link between the cholera outbreak to the contaminated water residing in the water pump in Broad Street. In 1854, Snow identified that a water pump in Broad Street located near one of the cess pits was what was contaminating the water; thereby linking the Broad Street pump as the outbreak site of the disease. Higher mortality rates were linked to the Broad Street pump. He had the handle of  the pump removed, and cases of cholera immediately began to diminish. Throughout the 20th century more Acts and Reforms were put in place in order to reduce the risk of spreading infection that led to illness and disease among the UK population. This included; Beveridge Report (1942), NHS (1946), Black Report (1980), Acheson Report (1998), Our Health Nation (1997), Saving Lives: Our Healthier Nation (1999). William Beveridge (1879-1963) produced ‘The Beveridge Report’ in 1942, which went on to become the basis of a series of reforms after the Second World War, by looking into way on reducing inequalities in the health care provision. This report has been used as the foundation for most social legislation. The Beveridge Report was a major influence in the introduction of The Welfare State along with The National Health Service founded in 1949. The Beveridge report focused on sanitation and ways to improve and change the educational standards of areas which were highly affected by poverty. The report suggested that the working class gave a share of their wages in order to aid those who did not work, those of which who were either sick, unemployed, retired or widowed were then given these contributions. The government tasked Beveridge with the developing a report that was based on the ways that Britain should be rebuilt once the Second World War ended. The report was published in 1942 and provided recommendations to the government in order to find ways of tackling the five ‘Giant Evils’ known as ‘Want, Disease, Ignorance, Squalor and Idleness.’ Edwin Chadwick 1842, William Beveridge 1942 and the White Paper Report: making healthier choices easier attempted to improve overall public health. Whereas Chadwick focused on poverty, Beveridge focused on sanitation and the White Paper was specific to health. Beveridge and the White Paper Report: making healthier choices easier focused on poverty and how it affected a persons overall health. Whereas in the Beveridge report he chose to write about The Welfare State, whilst the White Paper talked about reducing inequalities to health. John Snow and the White Paper Report both used statistics in order to provide evidence in order to give insight into the condition of public health and what need attention before giving suggestions on how to improve it. Works Cited Public Health. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/government/topics/public-health. Wright, J., Williams, R., Wilkinson, J. (1998, April 28 ). BMJ Health needs assessment. British Medical Journal, 1310-1313. Anon, (2014). [online] Available at: http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/lesson08.htm) [Accessed 3 Oct. 2014]. Bbc.co.uk, (2014). BBC History Historic Figures: John Snow (1813 1858). [online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/snow_john.shtml [Accessed 3 Oct. 2014]. Bbc.co.uk, (2014). BBC History William Beveridge. [online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/beveridge_william.shtml [Accessed 3 Oct. 2014]. Spartacus Educational, (2014). Edwin Chadwick. [online] Available at: http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/PHchadwick.htm [Accessed 3 Oct. 2014]. wiseGEEK, (2014). What is an Epidemiologist? (with pictures). [online] Available at: http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-an-epidemiologist.htm [Accessed 4 Oct. 2014].

Images and Imagery Helps Us To Understand Macbeth :: Macbeth essays

Macbeth: Imagery Helps Us To Understand Its Themes and Characters      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   For me to answer this essay question I must first find out what exactly imagery is,   to do this I used an Oxford dictionary and this is the definition; Imagery n. Images collectively;   statuary,   carving;   mental images collectively;   ornate figurative illustration,   esp.   as used by author for particular effect.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   An image is a picture that the author places in your head by graphic descriptions about a subject.   This image is designed to help the reader understand the plot or mood or to simply add life to a story. Shakespeare uses imagery a lot in his books and this imagery also symbolises a person or a theme in the story.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the first line of act one scene two Duncan is asking his Lords who the bloody man stood before him is.   He says that judging by his wounded state he could tell them of the latest news of the battle.   This opening sentence sets the scene for the whole of the play, a bloody war. There is more blood when MacBeth and his lady have killed Duncan,   the blood symbolises guilt so Lady MacBeth smears blood onto the guards and then cleans herself of the blood on her.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   "A little water clears us of this deed," meaning that if there is no blood on them they can not be guilty.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Banqueting,   eating and food symbolise a happy and unsuspecting atmosphere.   When you are in a crowd you feel safe and not threatened.   If you are with a lot of people when there is a crime you have a very strong alibi.   When Macbeth was at his banquet he made a toast to Banquo who was not present,   MacBeth knew exactly why Banquo was not present because it was he who sent out two murderers to kill him;   the play is full of such lies and stories to cover up crimes so much that the criminals can not handle the guilt.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The whole play is a reflection of chaos and order.   The population are all in an order and set rank but at the top of the hierarchy where the order matters there is a state of chaos and this is filtered down through the hierarchy to everyone in the play.   The people are fighting for order to be restored and justice done.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Throughout the book there are a lot of dark and light images.   The witches are always in the dark because the darkness represents a fear full unknown. It is in the dark where crimes occur   because they can go

A Critique of Nelson Goodman’s Concept of the New Riddle of Induction Essay

The development of the method of induction has been privy to the presentation and solution of riddles. At the initial level of its development, it has been privy to the old riddle of induction discovered by Hume. After the solution of the former riddle, however, a new riddle of induction was discovered by Nelson Goodman. In lieu of this, this paper opts to consider the development of the method of induction as a methodology defined by Hume and Goodman’s conception of the Inductive method. Induction refers to â€Å"a method of reasoning by which a general law or principle is inferred from observed particular instances† (Flew 171). The method of inductive inference may be considered as the primary means through which justifications are formulated to show the relationship of evidence towards particular assumptions (Godfrey 43). The process of induction, in this sense, may be seen to arise whenever we note that evidence lends support to a hypothesis while in the process failing to establish its deductive certainty. It was such a formulation of the method of induction that enabled the conception of the first riddle. What follows is a presentation of the main arguments of the aforementioned riddle as formulated by David Hume. Hume argued that since no necessary connections exists between empirical phenomena, it is always possible that a future observation will prove our inferences wrong no matter how appealing it may have been or how richly supported by past observations. This problem, in the more recent formulations of the problem has been referred to as the uniformity principle [in this sense the lack of such uniformity]. According to the argument, nature has no uniformity. If such is the case, it thereby follows that there is no voucher that which ensure the consistency of man’s most refined predictions. It might be argued that such an assumption has never been denied in the formulation of predictions however there has been agreement regarding the results of such an agreement [or lack thereof] within the province of induction. To some, it means that induction is never valid or justified, while to others, it means that induction simply calls for different standards of validity (Godfrey 63). The latter view strips the aforementioned riddle [Humean riddle] of its problematic context. This is evident if one considers that since the rules of deductive validity are inapplicable to induction, it cannot be a problem that inductive inference is unavoidably attended by the possibility that a future observation may prove it wrong (Goodman 4). The old riddle is then dismissed because it cannot possibly be the genuine problem of induction. Fact, Fiction, and Forecast present Goodman’s construal of what he refers to as the new riddle of induction. After refuting the old riddle of induction [the refutation of which is evident in the former paragraph], Goodman proceeds to outline what he takes to be the genuine problem of induction and its tentative solution. The problem of induction, he writes, is a problem of demonstrating the difference between valid and invalid predictions (Goodman 4). According to Goodman, a prediction is valid if it conforms to a valid rule of induction, and a rule is valid if it yields valid predictions. He acknowledges that such an assumption is characterized by circularity however; he notes that it is important to perceive such a conception of the problem in terms of the conceptions of justifications for arguments. Goodman notes that inductive predictions based on past regularities work better than those based on any other alternative. If such is the case, the rules for formulating predictions must be constructed in such a way that they will coincide with common practices of inductive reasoning. This, on the other hand, is further developed by the quality of predictions, which it produces. This is clearly explicated by Rubenstein as he notes, â€Å"the centerpiece of a valid inductive logic [according to Goodman] is its reliance on past regularities, and the prescriptive mandate of inductive validity is inseparable from a descriptive account of how inductive judgments are commonly made† (39). This has been the result of Goodman’s dissolution of the old riddle of induction. What follows this is Goodman’s explication that the most promising solution of the aforementioned riddle is untenable. It is through the introduction of such untenability that Goodman presents what he perceives to be the new riddle of induction. Goodman presents two hypotheses that are to be addressed through the use of the inductive method. One says that all emeralds are green and the other says that all emeralds are grue, where grue is said to apply to all things examined before t just in case they are green but to other things just in case they are blue (Goodman 10). Both hypotheses seem to be equally well supported by the evidence: all emeralds examined prior to t have been found to be green and grue. However, the two hypotheses are mutually exclusive. If emeralds are grue, they will be blue at t and thereafter, but if the alternative hypothesis is correct, they will be green. Thus, we are left with the paradox that Goodman christened the ‘new riddle of induction’. We cannot, after all, justify induction by appealing to past regularities. However, the reason, according to Goodman, is not the lack of the elusive uniformity principle, but the previously unrecognized ubiquity of regularities.   According to Goodman, regularities exist where one finds them. In relation to this Goodman states that one, however, finds them everywhere (Godfrey 53). If such is the case, it therefore follows that it is useless to base inductive validity on past regularities since it is not possible to predict and hence distinguish which regularities are valid and invalid. At this point, I would like to present a summary of the aforementioned discussion. In the aforementioned discussion, Goodman believes that the old riddle [the Humean riddle/the uniformity principle] has been dissolved and that induction is justified by past regularities. The only remaining difficulty he sees, however, lies in finding a rule for distinguishing between regularities that do and do not yield valid inductive predictions. As was noted in the above discussion, the possibility of such is not possible. This is evident if one considers that regularity necessitates the occurrence of acts of inductive inference. Therefore, the genuine problem of induction cannot be the distinction between the distinction of regularities that do or do not yield valid inductive predictions since the specification of such necessitates the formulation of inductive inferences. As I reckon, Goodman aforementioned conception fails to account for the process of induction. It is important to note that Goodman contends that induction begins with regularity. Rubenstein notes, â€Å"Induction does not begin with regularity – it ends with it† (44). The failure to consider this leads Goodman to misconstrue the problem of induction. It is important to note that experience of reality does not necessarily start with regularities but rather with individual observations. The role of induction, in this sense lies in providing us with justified methods that allows us to posit the observations that we will account for as regularities. Goodman, however, failed to account for this. In addition to this, it is important to note that such a failure can also be traced to Goodman’s assumptions regarding the process in which individuals formulate inferences. Goodman’s error is compounded when he makes a distinction between identifying regularity and projecting it. Once we have decided that our observations represent regularity, it is automatically projected in both temporal directions. This is, in fact, what we mean by applying the term regularity to our data. Furthermore, Stich and Nisbett contend that the â€Å"equilibrium with inductive practices† that Goodman posited, as a necessary aspect in formulating a valid inductive methodology is â€Å"neither necessary nor sufficient for a rule of inductive inference to be justified† (194). They argue that such an assumption fails to consider that â€Å"human subjects regularly and systematically make invalid inferences† and that there an instance wherein human reasoning enables an individual to â€Å"accept invalid rules and reject valid one’s that ought to govern the inference at hand† (Stitch and Nisbett 194).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In summary, the aforementioned paper presented Goodman’s arguments in relation to his conception of the new riddle in induction. Such a riddle, however, under scrutiny may be seen as based upon a mistaken assumption of the justification process of beliefs that necessitates the introduction of information garnered through the method of induction. This is evident, for example, if one considers the manner in which observations enable the formulation of regularities and not the other way around. An analysis of Goodman’s supposed riddle of induction thereby leaves the reader wondering if such a riddle may be considered as a valid concern for the adherents of the inductive methodology. Works Cited Flew, Anthony. A Dictionary of Philosophy.   London: Pan Books, 1983. Godfrey-Smith, Peter.   Theory and Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science.   Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003. Goodman, Nelson.   Fact, Fiction, and Forecast.   Massachussets: Harvard University Press, 1983. Rubenstein, Arthur.   â€Å"Induction, Grue Emeralds, and Lady Macbeth’s Fallacy.†Ã‚   The Philosophical Quarterly 48.190 (Jan. 1998): 37-49. Stitch, Stephen and Richard Nisbett.   â€Å"Justification and the Psychology of Human Reasoning.† Philosophy of Science 47.2 (Jun. 1980): 188-202.   

A Study On Hilton Hotel - 1157 Words

Hilton Hotel is founded by Conrad Hilton, they started their operation since 1919 and since then, they become one of the well-respected premier hospitality organizations with diverse employees worldwide. Currently, they have more than 4,600 owned and franchised hotels and resort chain in 100 countries. It has more than 200,000 rooms to accommodate guests from different parts of the world. It has more than 400,000 employees and team members to answers the needs of their guests (Hiltonhotelworldwide.com, 2016). In most of their branches their organizational structure is simple, with managers and supervisors from a different department, including admin, marketing, finance, human resource, concierge, food and beverages, housekeeping and etc. They also have team members and employees from Asia, and Africa and other nationalities worldwide. The common problem and issues that they have found among new employees are language and cultural differences that are creating barriers when it comes to cooperation. There is also occasional disrespect of ethnicity, colors, and discrimination of white and black. These problems are common with multi-national organizations with a diversity of employees, but Hilton Hotel is committed to developing and maintaining a well-rounded organization to enhance their competitive advantage. They continue to attract diverse workforce to strengthen their value and market leadership using different management strategies to solve these issues. Hilton HotelShow MoreRelatedHilton Hotels-Case Study Essays1039 Words   |  5 PagesIn an attempt to become a more aggressive business operation, Hilton Hotels decided to change its strategic direction by venturing into the gaming industry. With this strategy came not only new opportunities but also large elements of risks and competition. 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